Diseases of Laboratory Primates PAT 707, Diseases of Laboratory Animals II Part 2: Bacterial, mycotic, protozoal, metazoan parasitic, neoplastic, and miscellaneous diseases Prepared by Trenton R. Schoeb Department of Comparative Medicine University of Alabama at Birmingham Winter Quarter 1989-90 Tuberculosis 1. Agents: Mostly Mycobacterium tuberculosis, but M. bovis, M. avium-intracellulare, M. paratuberculosis, and others also. About 12 different mycobacteria have been isolated from nonhuman primates. 2. Epizootiology: Classical tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) usually is transmitted to monkeys from man. It is rare in wild monkeys from areas not near people, but more common in areas near people. Many are infected after capture. Pet monkeys from overseas are likely to be infected. Transmission of M. tuberculosis can be by a variety of routes. Respiratory infection via inhalation probably is most common, but the organism also can be acquired via ingestion, fight wounds, and from contaminated equipment such as tattooing devices, surgical instruments, and rectal thermometers. In the disseminated or miliary form, the route of entry may not be evident. Outbreaks can assume epizootic proportions among susceptible species; primate species vary widely in susceptibility. In general, TB is more common in Old World monkeys and apes than New World primates, and is rare in prosimians. As a rule, monkeys and apes are more susceptible than humans, whereas New World monkeys seem to be at least as resistant as man, and probably somewhat more so. Macaques are generally considered to be the most susceptible species. The sources of other mycobacterial infections are less clear. M. bovis infections, especially those occurring in zoos, probably result from exposure to infected ruminants. Whether M. avium-intracellulare, M. paratuberculosis result from exposure to undetermined infected hosts, such as wild birds or vermin, or to contaminated environments is not known. (These organisms survive for long periods in the environment under the right conditions.) M. avium-intracellulare infections may be more common than generally recognized; the National Veterinary Services Laboratory reported that over a 5-year period ending in 1976, almost half of the mycobacterial isolates from nonhuman primates were M. avium. Other "atypical" mycobacterial infections probably are acquired from the environment, as they commonly are found in soil and water. Infections with these organisms commonly are associated with SAIDS. Zoonotic. 3. Clinical: Classical respiratory TB usually is not evident until well advanced; affected monkeys can become slow, lethargic, and inappetent and lose weight, but they can be found dead with no premonitory signs if there is rapidly progressive pneumonia or widespread dissemination. The course tends to be especially rapid in young rhesus monkeys. Monkeys cough a lot whether or not they have TB, and other respiratory diseases are common problems, so respiratory signs are not diagnostically helpful. Cutaneous infections can result in draining ulcurs or fistulous tracts, lymphadenopathy, and suppurative lymphadenitis with rupture and drainage through the skin. This isn't especially common, but it would be wise to consider any draining lymph node tuberculous until proven otherwise. M. avium-intracellulare usually affects the intestine and regional lymph nodes, and, insofar as is known, M. paratuberculosis does so exclusively. Signs include chronic diarrhea, which responds poorly or not at all to therapy, and wasting. M. avium also can cause cutaneous and pulmonary lesions, and in a few cases has caused disseminated disease. M. kansasii has been found in a few cases of pulmonary tuberculosis. 4. Pathology: The general pattern is primary lesion with regional lymphadenopathy whether pulmonary, gastrointestinal, or cutaneous. Dissemination is common, in which case the site of primary infection may not be evident. Miliary TB is more common in macaques and apes than in man. Gross lesions are yellow-white to gray, pinpoint to several mm foci beneath the serosa or in the cut surface of the spleen, liver, lung, and other organs, and similar foci with enlargement in lymph nodes. In some cases there is multifocal coalescing or diffuse pyogranulomatous pneumonia with extensive caseation. Microscopic lesions are suppurative (acute) to classical granulomatous (later) inflammation with caseation. In macaques there is little or no mineralization or fibrosis as there is in man. Bone lesions have been reported, but are much less common than in human TB. The typical lesion of M. avium-intracellulare and M. paratuberculosis intestinal disease is epithelioid cell infiltration of the lamina propria of the gastrointestinal tract with numerous intracellular bacilli; the mesenteric nodes usually also are affected. Usually these lesions are diffuse, without typical tuberculous granulomas with central necrosis. However, the lesions in the lung and other organs can resemble those of classical tuberculosis. 5. Diagnosis: Intradermal TB test (beware of anergy in fulminating TB or induced by measles); lesions and demonstration of organism by acid-fast or fluorescent stain (organisms can be very difficult to find); culture of lesions, feces, stomach contents, bronchial fluids at necropsy; DNA hybridization. Blood, sputum, and fecal cultures and radiography are not reliable diagnostic aids. Differentiate from nocardiosis, mycoses, lung mite lesions. 6. Control: TB test: 0.1 ml undiluted mammalian old tuberculin (15,000 units) intradermally in eyelid. Questionable reactors can be retested in abdominal skin. Read at 24, 48 and 72 hours. At UAB: (1) All new primates are quarantined for 30 days and tested every 2 weeks before being admitted to the colony. They must have three consecutive negative tests to be condsidred negative. If any are positive, they are killed and the quarantine and testing procedure repeated. (2) In colonies, monkeys are tested every 3 months (baboons yearly). (3) Personnel are tested every 6 months. 7. References: Bellinger DA, Bullock BC. 1988. Cutaneous Mycobacterium avium infection in a cynomolgus monkey. Lab Anim Sci 38:85-86. Davis JA, Hayre M, Linn JM. 1988. Delayed cutaneous hypersensitivity response in tetanus toxoid sensitized rhesus monkeys: predictor of anergy and value in tuberculin skin testing. Lab Anim Sci 38:413-416. Ellner PD et al. 1988. Rapid detection and identification of pathogenic mycobacteria by combining radiometric and nucleic acid probe methods. J Clin Micro 26:1349-1352. Fleischman RW et al. 1982. Nontuberculous mycobacterial infection attributable to Mycobacterium intracellulare serotype 10 in two rhesus monkeys. J Am Vet Med Assoc 181:1358-1362. Fourie PB, Odendaal MW. 1983. Mycobacterium tuberculosis in a closed colony of baboons (Papio ursinus). Lab Anim 17:125-128. Goodwin BT, Jerome CP, Bullock BC. 1988. Unusual lesion morphology and skin test reaction for Mycobacterium avium complex in macaques. Lab Anim Sci 38:20-24. Habel K. 1947. Tuberculosis in a laboratory monkey colony: its spread and control. Am Rev Tuberc 55:77. Himes EM et al. 1982. Mycobacterium bovis isolated from a dusky langur with granulomas in the intestine. J Am Vet Med Assoc 181:1355-1357. Holmberg CA et al. 1982. Nontuberculous mycobacterial disease in rhesus monkeys. Vet Pathol 19(Suppl.7):9-16. Holmberg CA et al. 1985. Immunologic abnormality in a group of Macaca arctoides with high mortality due to atypical mycobacterial and other disease processes. Am J Vet Res 46:1192-1196. Houser W et al. 1982. Nonreactive and nonprogressive tuberculosis in a rhesus macaque (Abstract). Lab Anim Sci 32:425-426. Jackson RD et al. 1989. Mycobacterium kansasii in a rhesus monkey. Lab Anim Sci 39:425-428. Latt RH. 1975. Runyon group III atypical mycobacteria as a cause of tuberculosis in a rhesus monkey. Lab Anim Sci 25:206-209. Lindsey JR, Melby EC Jr. 1966. Naturally occurring primary cutaneous tuberculosis in the rhesus monkey. Lab Anim Care 16:369-385. Machotka SV et al. 1975. Cerebral tuberculosis in a rhesus monkey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 167:648-650. Mayhall CG. 1981. Infection in rhesus (Macaca mulatta) and squirrel (Saimiri sciureus) monkeys due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis phage type B. Outbreak in a primate colony. J Med Primatol 10:302-311. McClure HM, Yerkes Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA. 1984. Personal communication. Pierce DL, Dukelow WR. 1988. Misleading positive tuberculin reactions in a squirrel monkey colony. Lab Anim Sci 38:729-730. Renquist DM, Whitney RA. Tuberculosis in nonhuman primates. An overview. In Mycobacterial Infections of Zoo Animals, ed. Montali RJ. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, 1978, pp. 9-16. Sapolsky RM, Else JG. 1987. Bovine tuberculosis in a wild baboon population: epidemiological aspects. J Med Primatol 16:229-235. Sedgwick C, Parchen J, Durham R. 1970. Atypical mycobacterial infection in the pig- tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina). J Am Vet Med Assoc 157:724-725. Sesline H et al. 1975. Mycobacterium avium infection in three rhesus monkeys. J Am Vet Med Assoc 167:639-645. Shoemaker SA, Fisher JH, Scoggin CH. 1985. Techniques of DNA hybridization detect small numbers of mycobacteria with no cross-hybridization with non-mycobacterial respiratory organisms. Am Rev Resp Dis 131:760-763. Smith EK et al. 1973. Avian tuberculosis in monkeys. Am Rev Resp Dis 107:469-471. Tarara R et al. 1985. Tuberculosis in wild olive baboons, Papio cynocephalus anubis (Lesson), in Kenya. J Wildl Dis 21:137-140. Thoen CO, Richards WP, Jarnagin JL. Mycobacteria isolated from exotic animals. In Mycobacterial Infections of Zoo Animals, ed. Montali RJ, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 1978, pp. 55-60. Tryphonas L, Wong J. 1982. Pott's paraplegia in a tuberculous rhesus monkey, Macaca mulatta. J Med Primatol 11:211-220. Ward GS et al. 1985. Use of streptomycin and isoniazid during a tuberculosis epizootic in a rhesus and cynomolgus breeding colony. Lab Anim Sci 35:395-399. West CS et al. 1981. Intraocular granulomas associated with tuberculosis in primates. J Am Vet Med Assoc 179:1240-1244. Wilson P et al. 1984. Mycobacterium bovis infection in primates in Dublin Zoo: Epidemiologic aspects and implications for management. Lab Anim 18:383-387. Wolf RH et al. 1988. Multidrug chemotherapy of tuberculosis in rhesus monkeys. Lab Anim Sci 38:25-33. Shigellosis 1. Agent: Various serotypes of Shigella flexneri, S. dysenteriae, S. boydii, and S. sonnei. S. flexneri is most pathogenic and is isolated from majority of cases. 2. Epizootiology: Source of infection is man, directly or indirectly; shigellosis is not a disease of wild primates. In colonies, spread among monkeys via feces. Carriers are common and can constitute the majority of animals in a colony. Stress precipitates disease. Recovered animals are likely to be carriers. Zoonotic; usually mild or no disease in adults but can be severe, even fatal, in children. Human carriers also. 3. Clinical: Variable; soft stools with no constitutional signs to watery diarrhea with mucus, blood or pus; weakness, prostration, facial edema, rectal prolapse, death in a few days to 2 weeks if untreated. Can be epizootic with high morbidity and mortality in susceptible populations, e.g., newly caught or imported. More severe in young monkeys. 4. Pathology: Colitis. Distended, red colon with thickened, edamatous wall; catarrhal, suppurative, or fibrinonecrotizing mucosal exudate, mucosal hemorrhage; mucus, blood, flakes of exudate in liquid contents; enlarged, edematous, sometimes hemorrhagic mesenteric lymph nodes, congested mesenteric vessels. Microscopic: catarrhal to suppurative and necrotizing colitis, lamina proprial and submucosal hemorrhage and edema. Can have very deep ulcers. 5. Diagnosis: Signs, lesions, and culture. May require repeated attempts to isolate from rectal swab. 6. Control: Hygiene, proper housing and handling, isolation of affected primates. Treat with chloramphenicol and cephalosporin but don't expect to eliminate infection (carriers). Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is a popular treatment and has been reported to eliminate carriers. 7. References: Clerc PL et al. 1987. Plasmid-mediated early killing of eukaryotic cells by Shigella flexneri as studied by infection of J774 macrophages. Infect Immun 55:521-527. Donohue-Rolfe A, Jacewicz M, Keusch GT. 1988. Shiga toxin as inhibitor of protein synthesis. Methods Enzymol 165:231-235. Enurah LU, Uche EM, Nawathe DR. 1988. Fatal shigellosis in a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) in the Jos Zoo, Nigeria. J Wildl Dis 24:178-179. Kandel G et al. 1989. Pathogenesis of Shigella diarrhea. XVI. Selective targetting of Shiga toxin to villus cells of rabbit jejunum explains the effect of the toxin on intestinal electrolyte transport. J Clin Invest 84:1509-1517. Keusch GT, Bennish ML. 1989. Shigellosis: recent progress, persisting problems and research issues. Pediatr Infect Dis J 8:713-719. Keusch GT et al. 1986. Pathogenesis of Shigella diarrhea: Evidence for an N-linked glycoprotein Shigella toxin receptor and receptor modulation by á-galactosidase. J Infect Dis 153:238-248. Lawlor KM et al. 1987. Virulence of iron transport mutants of Shigella flexneri and utilization of host iron compounds. Infect Immun 55:594-599. Lindberg AA et al. 1988. Development of an auxotrophic oral live Shigella flexneri vaccine. Vaccine 6:146-150. Olson LC. 1986. Control of Shigella flexneri in Celebes black macaques (Macaca nigra). Lab Anim Sci 36:240-242. Pucak GJ et al. 1977. Elimination of the Shigella carrier state in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) by trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. J Med Primatol 6:127-132. Takeuchi A. 1982. Early colonic lesions in experimental Shigella infection in rhesus monkeys: Revisited. Vet Pathol 19(Suppl. 7):1-8. Salmonellosis 1. Agent: Various serotypes; Salmonella enteritidis serotypes enteritidis and typhimurium are most common. 2. Epizootiology: Most common source is feed contaminated by rodent feces, also could get from human carriers. Rare in wild primates. In colonies, spread from animal to animal via feces. Infection more common than disease (carriers); disease is usually sporadic but can be epizootic. 3. Clinical: Like shigellosis but generally milder. Diarrhea of variable severity, usually without mucus and blood; if severe, can be fatal. 4. Pathology: Not readily distinguishable from shigellosis, but small intestine (ileum) usually affected also (enterocolitis). Fluid contents, some also have mucus or blood or both. Suppurative, superficially necrotizing inflammation. Focal necrosis of gut lymphoid tissue. Can have multifocal necrotizing pyogranulomatous hepatitis, multifocal bronchopneumonia (a septicemic disease). 5. Diagnosis: Signs, lesions, culture (can isolate from gut contents, blood, spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow). 6. Control: Protect colony and feed from vermin and infected people. 7. References: Kent TH et al. 1966. Salmonella gastroenteritis in rhesus monkeys. Arch Pathol 82:272- 279. Klumpp SA et al. 1986. Salmonella osteomyelitis in a rhesus monkey. Vet Pathol 23:190- 197. Rout WR et al. 1974. Pathophysiology of salmonella diarrhea in the rhesus monkey: Intestinal transport, morphological and bacteriological studies. Gastroenterol 67:59- 70. Schiefer B, Loew FM. 1978. Amebiasis and salmonellosis in a woolly monkey (Lagothrix). Vet Pathol 15:428-431. Takasaka M et al. 1988. An outbreak of salmonellosis in newly imported cynomolgus monkeys. Jpn J Med Sci Biol 41:1-13. Thurman J et al. 1983. Septic abortion caused by Salmonella heidelberg in a white- handed gibbon. J Am Vet Med Assoc 183:1325-1326. Yersiniosis ("Pseudotuberculosis") 1. Agents: Yersinia enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis. 2. Epizootiology: Not well understood, most cases thought to result from feed contamination by rodents and wild birds. Not a common disease. 3. Clinical: Vague and nonspecific, can have diarrhea, abdominal distention, lymphadenopathy. 4. Pathology: Multifocal to diffuse pseudomembranous gastroenterocolitis, sometimes with ulcers; multiple yellow or gray-white foci in many organs including spleen, liver, kidney, and lymph nodes, sometimes with enlargement. Lesions are necrotizing with suppurative reaction, surrounded by macrophages and lymphocytes if chronic, usually not granulomatous, tend to contain large bacterial colonies. In the gastrointestinal tract, necrotizing and suppurative inflammation. Lesions not much like TB. 5. Diagnosis: Lesions, culture (most cases diagnosed post mortem). 6. Control: Control vermin. 7. References: Bottone EJ. 1984. Yersinia enterocolitica. In: Infectious Diarrheal Diseases: Current Concepts and Laboratory Procedures, ed. Ellner PD, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, pp. 13-48. Bresnahan JF et al. 1984. Yersinia enterocolitica infection in breeding colonies of ruffed lemurs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 185:1354. Buhles WC Jr. 1981. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection. Study of an epizootic in squirrel monkeys. J Clin Microbiol 13:519-525. Chang J et al. 1980. Fatal Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection in captive bushbabies. J Am Vet Med Assoc 177:820-821. Harai K et al. 1974. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection occurring spontaneously in a group of patas monkeys. Jap J Vet Sci 36:351-355. MacArthur JA, Wood M. 1983. Yersiniosis in a breeding unit of Macaca fascicularis (cynomolgus monkeys). Lab Anim 17:151-155. McClure HM. 1980. Diagnostic exercise. Yersiniosis. Lab Anim Sci 30:513-514. Rosenberg P et al. 1980. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection in a group of Macaca fascicularis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 177:818-819. Sasaki Y et al. 1989. Occurrence of Yersinia enterocolitica in the Tokyo Tama Zoo. J Wildl Dis 25:287-290. Skavlen PA et al. 1983. Yersinia enterocolitica septicemia in Erythrocebus patas (Abstract). Lab Anim Sci 33:481. Skavlen PA et al. 1985. Naturally occurring Yersinia enterocolitica in patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas). Lab Anim Sci 35:488-490. Strickland HL et al. 1982. An outbreak of infection with Yersinia pseudotuberculosis in a group of macaques. Lab Anim Sci 32:426. Taffs LF, Dunn G. 1983. An outbreak of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection in a small indoor breeding colony of red-bellied (Saguinus labiatus) tamarins. Lab Anim 17:311-320. Colibacillosis 1. Agent: Enteropathogenic serotypes of Escherichia coli. 2. Epizootiology: Isolated from sporadic cases of diarrhea in chimpanzees, patas monkeys, and an orangutan. Infection much more common than disease. Perhaps secondary to other agents, e.g., Shigella. 3. Clinical: Mild to severe diarrhea, course 2-10 days. Deaths reported only in infant chimps. 4. Pathology: In infant chimps, hemorrhagic and necrotizing inflammation throughout the gastrointestinal tract, widespread petechial hemorrhage and multifocal pulmonary hemorrhages. 5. Diagnosis: Signs, lesions, culture and serotyping, exclusion of other agents. 6. Control: Sanitation, isolation and treatment of affected primates. 7. Reference: Calderwood SB et al. 1987. Nucleotide sequence of the Shiga-like toxin genes of Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 84:4364-4368. Cleary TG et al. 1985. Shiga-like toxin production by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli serogroups. Infect Immun 47:335-337. Donnenberg MS, Donohue-Rolfe A, Keusch GT. 1989. Epithelial cell invasion: an overlooked property of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) associated with the EPEC adherence factor. J Infect Dis 160:452-459. Levine MM. 1987. Escherichia coli that cause diarrhea: Enterotoxigenic, enteropathogenic, enteroinvasive, enterohemorrhagic, and enteroadherent. J Infect Dis 155:377-389. Masure HR, Shattuck RL, Storm DR. 1987. Mechanisms of bacterial pathogenicity that involve production of calmodulin-sensitive adenylate cyclases. Microbiol Rev 51:60-65. McClure HM et al. 1972. Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli infection in anthropoid apes. J Am Vet Med Assoc 161:687-689. O'Brien AD et al. 1982. Production of Shigella dysenteriae type 1-like cytotoxin by Escherichia coli. J Infect Dis 146:763-769. O'Brien AD et al. 1984. Shiga-like toxin-converting phages from Escherichia coli strains that cause hemorrhagic colitis or infantile diarrhea. Science 226:694-696. Taylor FB Jr et al. 1988. Antithrombin-III prevents the lethal effects of Escherichia coli infusion in baboons. Circ Shock 26:227-235. Wessels BC et al. 1988. Plasma endotoxin concentration in healthy primates and during E. coli-induced shock. Crit Care Med 16:601-605. Campylobacter spp. 1. Agent: Campylobacter jejuni, C. coli (C. pylori ?) 2. Disease: A differential diagnosis in enteritis. Thought not to be a disease of wild primates, but acquired after capture. There also is a report (Reed and Berridge, 1988) describing four monkeys in which chronic gastritis associated with a Campylobacter-like organism was an incidental finding. 3. References: Baskerville A, Newell DG. 1988. Naturally occurring chronic gastritis and C. pylori infection in the rhesus monkey: a potential model for gastritis in man. Gut 29:465-472 Blaser MJ. 1984. Campylobacter enteritis. In: Infectious Diarrheal Diseases: Current Concepts and Laboratory Procedures, ed. Ellner PD, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, pp. 1-12. Blaser MJ et al. 1981. Campylobacter enteritis. New Engl J Med 305:1444-1452. Boncyk LH et al. 1972. Hemorrhagic necrotic enteritis in baboon due to Vibrio fetus. Lab Anim Sci 22:734-738. Bronsdon MA, Schoenknecht FD. 1988. Campylobacter pylori isolated from the stomach of the monkey, Macaca nemestrina. J Clin Microbiol 26:1725-1728. Bryant JL et al. 1983. Campylobacter jejuni isolated from patas monkeys with diarrhea. Lab Anim Sci 33:303-305. Fitzgeorge RB et al. 1981. Experimental infection of rhesus monkeys with a human strain of Campylobacter jejuni. J Hyg Camb 86:343-351. Goodwin T et al. 1983. Campylobacter enteritis in patas monkeys (Abstract). Lab Anim Sci 33:481. Kohno A et al. 1988. The serodiagnosis of Campylobacter infection in infant cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) 2 to 18 weeks old by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Lab Anim Sci 38:715-721. Luechtefeld NW et al. 1981. Isolation of Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni from zoo animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 179:1119-1120. Morton WR et al. 1983. Identification of Campylobacter jejuni in Macaca fascicularis imported from Indonesia. Lab Anim Sci 33:187-188. Newell DG, Hudson MJ, Baskerville A. 1988. Isolation of a gastric campylobacter-like organism from the stomach of four rhesus monkeys, and identification as Campylobacter pylori. J Med Microbiol 27:41-44. Reed KD, Berridge BR. 1988. Campylobacter-like organisms in the gastric mucosa of rhesus monkeys. Lab Anim Sci 38:329-331. Russell RG et al. 1985. Coronavirus-like particles and Campylobacter in marmosets with diarrhea and colitis. Dig Dis Sci 30(Suppl 12):72S-77S. Russell RG et al. 1988. Prevalence of Campylobacter in infant, juvenile and adult laboratory primates. Lab Anim Sci 38:711-714. Russell RG et al. 1989. Experimental Campylobacter jejuni infection in Macaca nemestrina. Infect Immun 57:1438-1444. Russell RG et al. 1988. Prevalence of Campylobacter in infant, juvenile and adult laboratory primates. Lab Anim Sci 38:711-714. Taylor NS et al. 1989. Diversity of serotypes of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolated in laboratory animals. Lab Anim Sci 39:219-221. Tribe GW, Frank A. 1980. Campylobacter in monkeys. Vet Rec 106:365-366. Pneumococcal Pneumonia and Septicemia 1. Agent: Streptococcus pneumoniae. 2. Epizootiology: Common inhabitant of oral cavity and upper respiratory tract. Same organism as in man, but primates not thought to be factor in human disease. 3. Clinical: Dyspnea, fever, death. 4. Pathology: Fibrinopurulent bronchopneumonia, sometimes with pleuritis, pericarditis, peritonitis, meningitis. 5. Diagnosis: Signs, lesions, culture. 6. Control: Prompt diagnosis and treatment. 7. References: Fox JG, Soave OA. 1971. Pneumococcic meningoencephalitis in a rhesus monkey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 159:1595- . Jones EE et al. 1984. Predisposition to invasive pneumococcal illness following parainfluenza type 3 virus infection in chimpanzees. J Am Vet Med Assoc 185:1351- 1353. Solleveld HA et al. 1984. Clinicopathologic study of six cases of meningitis and meningoencephalitis in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Lab Anim Sci 34:86-90. Listeriosis 1. Agent: Listeria monocytogenes 2. Disease: Endometritis and abortion constitute the usual form in adults. Septicemia with multifocal lesions in liver, kidney, and other organs usually occurs in neonates but affects adults rarely. L. monocytogenes is a human pathogen; therefore, listeriosis is a potential zoonosis. 3. References: Blenden DC et al. 1987. Listeriosis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 191:1546-1551. Chalifoux LV, Hajema EM. 1981. Septicemia and meningoencephalitis caused by Listeria monocytogenes in a neonatal Macaca fascicularis. J Med Primatol 10:336-339. Heldstab A, Ruedi D. 1982. Listeriosis in an adult female chimpanzee (Pan troglocytes). J Comp Pathol 25:199-202. McClure HM, Strozier LM. 1975. Perinatal listeric septicemia in a Celebese black ape. J Am Vet Med Assoc 167:637-638. Vetesi F et al. 1972. Abortion in Gray's monkey (Cercopithecus mona) associated with Listeria monocytogenes. Acta Microbiol Acad Sci Hung 19:441-443. Miscellaneous Causes of Pneumonia, Septicemia, or Both 1. Agents: Klebsiella pneumoniae, Hemophilus influenzae, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Francisella tularensis, Salmonella, et al. 2. Disease: Klebsiella, Hemophilus, and Bordetella may cause pneumonia secondary to viral respiratory infections. Klebsiella and Hemophilus also can cause septicemia with or without pneumonia. Erysipelas and tularemia are typically septicemic; pneumonia, if it occurs, is a secondary process. Lesions indicative of septicemia might include focal cutaneous and mucous membrane hemorrhage, lymphadenitis, multifocal hepatitis, polyarthritis, meningitis, etc. 3. References: Baskerville M et al. 1983. An outbreak of Bordetella bronchiseptica pneumonia in a colony of common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Lab Anim 17:350-355. Benjamin SA, Lang CM. 1971. Acute pasteurellosis in owl monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus). Lab Anim Sci 21:258-262. Dawkins BG. 1982. Haemophilus influenzae septic pyarthrosis in a cynomolgus monkey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 181:1430-1431. Fox JG, Rohovsky MW. 1975. Meningitis caused by Klebsiella spp. in two rhesus monkeys. J Am Vet Med Assoc 167:634-636. Graves IL. 1968. Bordetella bronchiseptica isolated from a fatal case of bronchopneumonia in an African green monkey. Lab Anim Sci 18:405-406. Hirsh C et al. 1975. Erysipelas in a black and red tamarin. J Am Vet Med Assoc 167:646- 647. Nayar GPS et al. 1979. Tularemia in a group of nonhuman primates. J Am Vet Med Assoc 175:962-963. Scheifele W et al. 1980. Hemophilus influenzae bacteremia and meningitis in infant primates. J Lab Clin Med 95:450-462. Schmidt RE, Butler TM. 1971. Klebsiella-Enterobacter infections in chimpanzees. Lab Anim Sci 21:946-949. Siebold HR et al. 1970. Pneumonia associated with Bordetella bronchiseptica in Callicebus species primates. Lab Anim Sci 20:456-461. Wallach J 1977. Erysipelas in two captive Diana monkeys. J Am Vet Med Assoc 171:979- 980. Melioidosis 1. Agent: Pseudomonas pseudomallei. 2. Epizootiology: Reported in macaques, chimpanzee, orangutan. Probably transmitted via exudate contamination of wounds or by biting insects. Uncommon, but zoonotic. Mortality in man about 80%. 3. Clinical: Gradual wasting febrile disease with lameness, abscesses, lymphadenopathy. 4. Pathology: Multiple gray to yellow foci or nodules in serous surfaces, thoracic and abdominal viscera; contain liquid or caseous exudate. Suppurative bronchopneumonia, multifocal pyogranulomatous inflammation in many organs and tissues. 5. Diagnosis: Lesions, culture. 6. Control: If diagnosed ante mortem, should dispose of affected animal. Very poor response to therapy. 7. References: Britt JO Jr et al. 1981. Melioidiotic osteomyelitis in an imported primate. J Am Vet Med Assoc 179:1303-1305. Butler TM et al. 1971. Melioidosis in a chimpanzee. Am J Vet Res 32:1109-1117. Fritz PE et al. 1986. Naturally occurring melioidosis in a colonized rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Lab Anim 20:281-285. Mutalib AR et al. 1984. Melioidosis in a banded leaf-monkey (Presbytis melalophos). Vet Rec 115:438-439. Smith NR, Dannit M. 1982. Fatal bronchopneumonia in a young orangutan caused by Pseudomonas pseudomallei. Vet Rec 110:251. Strauss JM et al. 1969. Melioidosis with spontaneous remission of osetomyelitis in a macaque. J Am Vet Med Assoc 155:1169-1175. Corynebacterium ulcerans Rhesus, cynomolgus, African green, others. Lesions: local infections of wounds, especially bite wounds; fibrinous or pseudomembranous rhinitis, pharyngitis, tracheitis, and tonsillitis; pneumonia with abscesses. Organism produces either or both diptheria toxin and a necrotizing toxin. May B. 1972. Corynebacterium ulcerans infections in monkeys. Lab Anim Sci 22:509- 513. Leprosy Morphology of lesions similar to those in man. Natural disease reported only in sooty mangabeys and a chimpanzee. (Disease in sooty mangabeys proposed as model of human disease.) Other nonhuman primates are probably resistant--macaques in daily contact with lepers in India do not acquire the disease. Baskin GB. 1987. Experimental leprosy in African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops): A model for polyneuritic leprosy. Am J Trop Med Hyg 37:385-391. Fukunishi Y et al. 1984. Electron microscopic study of leprosy in a mangabey monkey (natural infection). Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 52:203-207. Gormus BJ et al. 1988. A second sooty mangabey monkey with naturally acquired leprosy: first reported possible monkey-to-monkey transmission. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 56:61-65. Gormus BJ et al. 1989. Interactions between simian immunodeficiency virus and Mycobacterium leprae in experimentally inoculated rhesus monkeys. J Infect Dis 160:405-413. Hagstad HV. 1983. Leprosy in sub-human primates: Potential risk for transfer of M. leprae to humans. Int J Zoonoses 10:127-131. Leininger JR et al. 1978. Leprosy in a chimpanzee. Morphology of the skin lesions and characterization of the organism. Vet Pathol 15:339. Leininger R et al. 1980. Leprosy in a chimpanzee. Postmortem lesions. Int J Leprosy 48:414-421. Malaty R et al. 1988. Histopathological changes in the eyes of mangabey monkeys with lepromatous leprosy. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 56:443-448. Martin LN et al. 1984. Experimental leprosy in nonhuman primates. Adv Vet Sci Comp Med 28:201-265. Martin LN et al. 1985. Depression of lymphocyte responses to mitogens in mangabeys with disseminated experimental leprosy. Cell Immunol 90:115-130. Meyers WM et al. 1985. Leprosy in a mangabey monkey--naturally acquired infection. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 53:1-14. Wolf RH et al. 1985. Experimental leprosy in three species of monkeys. Science 227:529-531. Chlamydiosis Chlamydia psittaci and C. trachomatis are not important causes of natural disease, but C. psittaci has been reported to cause fibrinopurulent pneumonia in cynomolgus monkeys. Laboratory primates are used in studies of important human chlamydial diseases of the eye and urogenital system. Bell TA et al. 1989. Experimental infection of baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis) with Chlamydia pneumoniae strain 'TWAR'. J Infect 19:47-49. Caldwell HD et al. 1987. Tear and serum antibody response to Chlamydia trachomatis antigens during acute chlamydial conjunctivitis in monkeys as determined by immunoblotting. Infect Immun 55:93-98. Cosgrove PA et al. 1989. Experimentally induced ocular chlamydial infection in infant pig-tailed macaques. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 30:995-1003. Fraser CE. 1976. The owl monkey (Aotus trivirgatus) as an animal model in trachoma research. Lab Anim Sci 26:1138-1141. Morita M et al. 1971. Spontaneous cases of a disease of cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca irus) probably caused by the psittacosis lymphogranuloma trachoma group (Chlamydia). Nippon Juigaku Zasshi 33:261-270. James SP et al. 1987. Cytotoxic and immunoregulatory function of intestinal lymphocytes in Chlamydia trachomatis proctitis of nonhuman primates. Infect Immun 55:1137-1143. Johnson AP, Taylor Robinson D. 1982. Chlamydial genital tract infections. Experimental infection of the primate genital tract with Chlamydia trachomatis. Am J Pathol 106:132-135. Mller BR, Mardh PA. 1980. Experimental epididymitis and urethritis in grivet monkeys provoked by Chlamydia trachomatis. Fertil Steril 34:275-279. Mller BR et al. 1980. Experimental pelvic inflammatory disease provoked by Chlamydia trachomatis and Mycoplasma hominis in grivet monkeys. Am J Obstet Gynecol 138:990-995. Mller BR, Mardh PA. 1982. Animal models for the study of Chlamydial infections of the urogenital tract. Scand J Infect Dis [Suppl] 32:103-108. Mller BR, Mardh PA. 1980. Experimental salpingitis in grivet monkeys by Chlamydia trachomatis. Modes of spread of infection to the Fallopian tubes. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand [B] 88:107-114. Morita M et al. 1971. Spontaneous cases of a disease of cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca irus) probably caused by the psittacosis-lymphogranuloma-trachoma group (Chlamydia). Jap J Vet Sci 33:261-270. Patton DL. 1983. Host response to primary Chlamydia trachomatis infection of the fallopian tube in pig tailed monkeys. Fertil Steril 40:829-840. Patton DL. 1985. Immunopathology and histopathology of experimental chlamydial salpingitis. Rev Infect Dis 7:746-753. Patton DL et al. 1987. Distal tubal obstruction induced by repeated Chlamydia trachomatis salpingeal infections in pig tailed macaques. J Infect Dis 155:1292-1299. Patton DL, Taylor HR. 1986. The histopathology of experimental trachoma: ultrastructural changes in the conjunctival epithelium. J Infect Dis 153:870-878. Patton DL et al. 1987. Distal tubal obstruction induced by repeated Chlamydia trachomatis salpingeal infections in pig tailed macaques. J Infect Dis 155:1292-1299. Quinn TC. et al. 1987. Experimental proctitis due to rectal infection with Chlamydia trachomatis in nonhuman primates. J Infect Dis 154:833-841. Woodland RM et al. 1983. Animal models of chlamydial infection. Br Med Bull 39:175-180. Actinomycetes Nocardia (pneumonia), Actinomyces (draining tracts), and Dermatophilus (dermatitis) are rare causes of disease. Al-Doory Y et al. 1969. Pulmonary nocardiosis in a vervet monkey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 155:1179-1180. Fox JG et al. 1973. Dermatophilosis (cutaneous streptothricosis) in owl monkeys. J Am Vet Med Assoc 163:642-644. Jonas AM, Wyand DS. 1966. Pulmonary nocardiosis in the rhesus monkey. Pathol Vet 3:588-600. Leibenberg SP, Giddens WE Jr. 1985. Disseminated nocardiosis in three macaque monkeys. Lab Anim Sci 35:162-166. Sakakibara I et al. 1984. Spontaneous nocardiosis with brain abscess caused by Nocardia asteroides in a cynomolgus monkey. J Med Primatol 13:89-96. Bacterial Infections--Miscellaneous and General References Adams MR et al. 1984. Hemobartonellosis in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) in a domestic breeding colony: Case report and preliminary study. Lab Anim Sci 34:82-85. Good RC, May BD. 1971. Respiratory pathogens in monkeys. Infect Immun 3:87-93. Keusch GT. 1988. Antimicrobial therapy for enteric infections and typhoid fever: state of the art. Rev Infect Dis 10(Suppl 1):S199-S205. Kundsin RB et al. 1975. T-strain mycoplasmas and reproductive failure in monkeys. Lab Anim Sci 25:221-224. Obeck DK et al. 1976. Severe polyarthritis in a rhesus monkey: Suggested mycoplasma etiology. Lab Anim Sci 26:613-618. Stills HF Jr et al. 1979. Bacterial myocarditis in African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops). Vet Pathol 16:376-380. Stipkovits L et al. 1989. Isolation of M. pneumoniae from monkeys (Presbitus cristata). Zentralbl Veterinarmed [B] 36:134-138. Mycoses Nonhuman primates are susceptible to dermatophytosis (Microsporum spp., Trichophyton spp., Epidermophyton spp.), piedra (Piedraia hortai, Trichosporon beigelli), candidiasis, phycomycosis, pulmonary aspergillosis, coccidioidomycosis, African histoplasmosis (H. duboisii), blastomycosis, and cryptoccosis. None of these are important causes of disease in laboratory primates, most being sporadic or rare. Most are also human pathogens. Baskin GB et al. 1984. Cutaneous zygomycosis in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Vet Pathol 21:125-128. Beaman L et al. 1980. The incidence of coccidioidomycosis among nonhuman primates housed outdoors at the California Primate Research Center. J Med Primatol 9:254-261. Breznock AW et al. 1975. Coccidioidomycosis in a rhesus monkey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 167:657-661. Burton M et al. 1986. Coccicioidomycosis in a ring-tailed lemur. J Am Vet Med Assoc 189:1209-1211. Butler TM et al. 1988. Case of disseminated African histoplasmosis in a baboon. J Med Primatol 17:153-161. Castleman WL et al. 1980. Posterior paralysis and spinal osteomyelitis in a rhesus monkey with coccidioidomycosis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 177:933-934. Garner FM et al. 1969. Systemic cryptococcosis in two monkeys. J Am Vet Med Assoc 155:1163-1168. Jaskiewicz K et al. 1987. Hepatitis in vervet monkeys caused by Fusarium moniliforme. J Comp Pathol 97:281-291. Martin JE et al. 1969. Rhino-orbital phycomycosis in a rhesus monkey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 155:1253-1257. Migaki G et al. 1982. Disseminated entomophthoromycosis in a mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx). Vet Pathol 19:551-554. Migaki G et al. 1982. Mycotic infections of the alimentary tract of non-human primates: A review. Vet Pathol 19(Suppl.7):93-103. Pal M et al. 1984. Pulmonary cryptococcosis in a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Mykosen 27:309-312. Rosenberg P et al. 1984. Spinal coccidioidomycosis in a baboon. J Am Vet Med Assoc 185:1379. Wiske SE, Fox GF, Kovatch RM. 1970. Candidiasis in simian primates. Lab Anim Care 20:957-963. Malaria 1. Agent: Plasmodium spp. These organisms undergo sexual reproduction in mosquitoes and asexual reproduction in mammalian hosts. 2. Epizootiology: Transmitted by at least 12 species of anopheline mosquitoes. Sporozoites from mosquitoes become trophozoites which invade hepatocytes (or endothelial cells) and undergo exoerythrocytic schizogony. At intervals, the resulting merozoites undergo further cycles of schizogony in red cells, producing periodic paroxysms of anemia and fever in susceptible hosts. Usually mild or no disease in natural host, but can be severe, even fatal, in other hosts (e.g., P. knowlesi in rhesus monkeys). Plasmodium spp. are prevalent in tropical regions world-wide. 3. Clinical: Variable. Often inapparent. Lethargy, anorexia, anemia, fever, hemoglobinuria, oliguria, death in some cases. P. vivax and P. ovale cause benign tertian malaria, characterized by fever spikes about every 48 hours, in people. P. malariae causes benign quartan malaria, with fever spikes about every 72 hours. P. falciparum is the most virulent; it causes malignant tertian malaria, with fever spikes that tend to occur about every 48 hours but often are irregular. 4. Pathology: Hemolytic anemia; watery blood, dark urine, enlarged, slate gray spleen and liver. In some cases, cerebral hemorrhage due to occlusion of small vessels by parasitized red cells. Microscopic: "reticuloendothelial" hyperplasia of liver and spleen, cells laden with malarial pigment ("hemozoin"), hemosiderin, and parasitized red cells; erythroid hyperplasia of bone marrow. (Hemozoin does not stain for ferrous iron.) In virulent forms of malaria, particularly human falciparum malaria, erythrocytes become "sticky," resulting in plugging of capillaries, which results in ischemia. This results in CNS signs when the brain is affected, and in pulmonary edema or DIC and shock. These are the most common causes of death in human falciparum malaria. 5. Diagnosis: Blood smear; signs, lesions. 6. Control: Mosquito control. 7. References: Bray RS, Garnham PC. 1982. The life-cycle of primate malaria parasites. Br Med Bull 38:117-122. Coatney GR. The primate malarias. USDHEW Publ 1744-005, Bethesda MD 20014. Collins WE et al. 1982. Observations on two strains of Plasmodium falciparum from Haiti in Aotus monkeys. J Parasitol 68:657-667. Collins WE et al. 1985. Studies on the North Korean strain of Plasmodium vivax in Aotus monkeys and different anophelines. J Parasitol 71:20-27. Collins WE et al. 1989. The Uganda I/CDC strain of Plasmodium malariae in Aotus lemurinus griseimembra monkeys. J Parasitol 75:61-65. Mitchell GH et al. 1988. Plasmodium vivax malaria in the common marmoset, Callithrix jacchus: adaptation and host response to infection. Parasitology 96:241-250. Rosen S et al. 1968. Malarial nephropathy in the rhesus monkey. Arch Pathol 85:36-44. Schmidt LH et al. 1982. Plasmodium cynomolgi infections in the rhesus monkey. Am J Trop Med Hyg 31:609-703. Schofield L et al. 1985. An outbreak of Plasmodium inui malaria in a colony of diabetic rhesus monkeys. Lab Anim Sci 35:167-168. Spangler WL et al. 1978. Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in the rhesus monkey. Vet Pathol 15:83-91. Hepatocystis kochi and H. simiae Malarial parasites of Old World monkeys. Transmitted by midges. Usually nonpathogenic. Schizonts develop into very large (< 4 mm) megaoloschizonts or merocysts; these grossly resemble miliary granulomas of TB. Red cell forms resemble plasmodia. Leathers CW. 1978. The prevalence of Hepatocystis kochi in African green monkeys. Lab Anim Sci 28:186-189. Narama I et al. 1980. A fatal case of hepatocystosis in an imported monkey (Macaca fascicularis). Nippon Juigaku Zasshi 42:453-457. Phillips-Conroy JE, Lambrecht FL, Jolly CJ. 1988. Hepatocystis in populations of baboons (Papio hamadryas s.l.) of Tanzania and Ethiopia. [Published erratum appears in J Med Primatol 1988; 17:289-290] J Med Primatol 17:145-152. Turner TR et al. 1982. Hepatocystis parasitemia in wild Kenya vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops). J Med Primatol 11:191-194. Babesia pitheci Occasional cause of anemia in African primates. Trypanosoma spp. Commonly found in the blood of South American primates, but the only one known to be pathogenic is T. cruzi. Monkeys could be reservoirs for human infection. Reduviid bugs are vectors. Other described species include T. sanmartini (squirrel monkeys), T. minasense (many New World monkeys), T. rangeli (capuchins and man), T. saimirii (squirrel monkeys), T. diasi (capuchins), and T. primatum (guenons and apes in Africa). T. cruzi is an important cause of human disease (American trypanosomiasis). Primates sometimes develop overt disease, but not usually. Most common manifestation is myocarditis due to multiplication of amastigotes in cardiac myocytes, but T. cruzi also can cause fetal infections, placentitis, and abortion. Human African trypanosomiasis ("sleeping sickness") is caused by T. rhodesiense and T. gambiense. Both are transmitted by tsetse flies (Glossina sp.). The disease can assume an acute form, with fever, purpura, and DIC; a chronic episodic form, with periodic bouts of fever, lymphadenopathy, and splenomegaly; or a chronic form, with progressive brain dysfunction, cachexia, and death. These can occur sequentially, or only the chronic form may be evident. T. rhodesiense tends to be more acutely virulent; T. gambiense tends to cause more CNS disease. The episodic nature of the disease results from the organisms' genetically programmed sequence of surface antigenic changes, which thwarts the host's immune response. Lesions include diffuse lymphoid hyperplasia and demyelinating encephalitis. In contrast to plasmodia, trypanosomes undergo asexual reproduction in both the vector and the mammalian host. The trypomastigote is the blood form. When ingested by the intermediate host, the trypomastigotes multiply in the gut, then, as epimastigotes, in the salivary glands. The epimastigotes develop into infective trypomastigotes which are injected into the mammalian host when the fly feeds. The organisms multiply in the blood as trypomastigotes and in other tissues, such as heart muscle in the case of T. cruzi, as amastigotes. Eberhard M, D'Alessandro A. 1982. Congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection in a laboratory-born squirrel monkey, Saimiri sciureus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 31:931-933. Gleiser CA et al. 1986. Trypanosoma cruzi infection in a colony-born baboon. J Am Vet Med Assoc 189:1225. Kasa TJ et al. 1977. An endemic focus of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in a subhuman primate research colony. J Am Vet Med Assoc 171:850-854. Marinkelle CJ, 1982. The prevalence of Trypanosoma (Schizotrypanum) cruzi cruzi infection in Colombian monkeys and marmosets. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 76:121-124. Olson LC et al. 1986. Encephalitis associated with Trypanosoma cruzi in a Celebes black macaque. Lab Anim Sci 36-667-670. Amoebiosis 1. Agent: Entamoeba histolytica; rarely, Acanthamoeba sp. 2. Epizootiology: Transmission is through fecal contamination from carriers, including human carriers. Zoonotic. Organism forms environmentally resistant cysts. Many strains of E. histolytica are nonpathogenic and there are other species of amoebae that also are nonpathogenic; therefore, finding amoebae in fecal smears is not necessarily diagnostic. Carriage is common. 3. Clinical: Variable; no signs to diarrhea and debilitation. 4. Pathology: Lesions range from mild colitis to multifocal, even diffuse, ulcerative colitis. Ulcers are classically flask-shaped and can be quite deep. Amoebae are easily identified in the lesions; they provoke little host reaction. They can contain phagocytized erythrocytes. Amoebic abscesses in the liver, lung, brain, or other organs are rare complications. Acanthamoeba sp. is a rare cause of disseminated disease, particularly pneumonia and encephalitis. 5. Diagnosis: Signs, fecal exam, lesions. 6. Control: Sanitation and hygiene. 7. References: Beaver PC, Blanchard JL, Seibold HR. 1988. Invasive amebiasis in naturally infected New World and Old World monkeys with and without clinical disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg 39:343-352. Frame JD. 1984. Amebiasis and giardiasis. In: Infectious Diarrheal Diseases: Current Concepts and Laboratory Procedures, ed. Ellner PD, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, pp. 117-140. Haq A et al. 1985. Experimental infection of rhesus monkeys with Entamoeba histolytica mimics human infection. Lab Anim Sci 35:481-484. Loomis MR et al. 1983. Hepatic and gastric amebiasis in black and white colobus monkeys. J Am Vet Med Assoc 183:1188-1191. Palmieri JR et al. 1984. Gastric amebiasis in a silvered leaf monkey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 185:1374. Sakakibara I et al. 1982. Natural transmission of Entamoeba histolytica from mother cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) to their newborn infants under indoor rearing conditions. Jikken Dobutsu 31:135-138. Scheifer B, Loew FM. 1978. Amebiasis and salmonellosis in a woolly monkey (Lagothrix). Vet Pathol 15:428-431. Smith JM, Meerovitch E. 1985. Primates as a source of Entamoeba histolytica, their zymodeme status and zoonotic potential. J Parasitol 71:751-756. Balantidiasis 1. Agent: Balantidium coli 2. Epizootiology: Reported in apes, Old World monkeys. Pathogenicity questionable; perhaps an opportunist or secondary invader. Organism forms environmentally resistant cysts. 3. Clinical: Diarrhea. 4. Pathology: Ulcerative colitis; deep, undermining ulcers with numerous balantidia. 5. Diagnosis: Signs, fecal exam, exclusion of other causes, lesions. 6. Control: Sanitation. 7. References: Kim JCS et al. 1978. Balantidiosis in a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). Lab Anim 12:231- 233. Teare JA, Loomis R. 1982. Epizootic of balantidiasis in lowland gorillas. J Am Vet Med Assoc 181:1345-1347. Cryptosporidiosis Uncommon, but a differential diagnosis in diarrhea. Most cases in monkeys with SAIDS. Organism appears to have little species specificity; forms resistant oocysts. Anderson BC. 1982. Cryptosporidiosis. A review. J Am Vet Med Assoc 180:1455-1457. Blanchard JL et al. 1987. Disseminated cryptosporidiosis in simian immunodeficiency virus/delta-infected rhesus monkeys. Vet Pathol 24:454-456. Cockrell BY. 1974. Cryptosporidiosis in the intestines of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Lab Anim Sci 24:881-887. Current WL. 1985. Cryptosporidiosis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 187:1334-1338. Fayer R, Ungar B. 1986. Cryptosporidium spp. and cryptosporidiosis. Microbiol Rev 50:458-483. Kovatch RM, White J. 1972. Crytosporidiosis in two juveline rhesus monkeys. Vet Pathol. 9:426-440. Levine JF et al. 1988. Cryptosporidiosis in veterinary students. J Am Vet Med Assoc 193:1413-1414. Miller RA et al. 1990. Clinical and parasitologic aspects of cryptosporidiosis in nonhuman primates. Lab Anim Sci 40:42-46. Navin TR, Juranek D. 1984. Cryptosporidiosis: Clinical, epidemiologic, and parasitologic review. Rev Infect Dis 6:313-327. Wilson W et al. 1984. Diarrhea associated with Crytosporidium spp. in juvenile macaques. Vet Pathol 21:447-450. Blastocystis hominis A protozoan of doubtful pathogenicity; sometimes seen in fecal smears. McClure HM et al. 1980. Blastocystis hominis in a pigtailed macaque: A potential enteric pathogen for nonhuman primates. Lab Anim Sci 30:890- 894. Giardia lamblia Questionable pathogen; may be occasional cause of mucoid diarrhea. Trichomonads Not uncommon as incidental findings; usually no disease, but mucosal inflammation in association with trichomonad infestation has been reported. Blanchard JL, Baskin GB. 1988. Trichomonas gastritis in rhesus monkeys infected with the simian immunodeficiency virus [letter] J Infect Dis 157:1092-1093. Scimeca JM et al. 1989. Intestinal trichomonads (Tritrichomonas mobilensis) in the natural host Saimiri sciureus and Saimiri boliviensis. Vet Pathol 26:144-147. Toxoplasmosis Rare cause of (usually fatal) disease. Lesions are as would be expected: widespread multifocal necrosis, affecting in particular the spleen, lymph nodes, liver, and brain. Anderson DC, McClure HM. 1982. Acute disseminated fatal toxoplasmosis in a squirrel monkey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 181:1363. Dickson J et al. 1983. Epidemic toxoplasmosis in captive squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). Vet Rec 112:302. Dubey JP et al. 1985. Acute death associated with Toxoplasma gondii in ring-tailed lemurs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 187:1272. Hessler JR et al. 1971. Lethal toxoplasmosis in a woolly monkey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 159:1588. Encephalitozoonisis Reported as a naturally occurring disease only in squirrel monkeys, in which multifocal granulomatous lesions were found in the brain, kidneys, lungs, adrenals, and livers. Vasculitis also was common in some organs. About one-third or so of the reported cases have been congenital, and one case of placentitis was observed. Anver MR et al. 1972. Congenital encephalitozoonosis in Saimiri sciureus. Vet Pathol 9:475-480. Shadduck JA, Baskin G. 1989. Serologic evidence of Encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in a colony of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). Lab Anim Sci 39:328-330. van Dellen AF, Stewart CG, Botha WS. 1989. Studies of encephalitozoonosis in vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus pygerythrus) orally inoculated with spores of Encephalitozoon cuniculi isolated from dogs (Canis familiaris). Onderstepoort J Vet Res 56:1-22. Zeman H et al. 1985. Encephalitozoonosis in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). Vet Pathol 22:24-31. Miscellaneous Protozoa Broderson JR et al. 1986. Experimental visceral leishmaniasis in the owl monkey. Vet Pathol 23:294-302. Kuncl RW, Richter W. 1988. Prevalence and ultrastructure of sarcocystis in rhesus monkeys. Nippon Juigaku Zasshi 50:519-527. Long GG et al. 1975. Pneumocystis carinii infection in splenectomized owl monkeys. J Am Vet Med Assoc 167:651-654. Schoeb TR. 1984. Klossiella sp. infection in a galago. J Am Vet Med Assoc 185:1381. Strongyloidosis 1. Agents: Strongyloides fulleborni in Old World primates, S. cebus in New World monkeys, and S. stercoralis in chimps, other apes and man. Family Rhabditidae (order Rhabditida). Worms are very small and can be seen only microscopically. 2. Epizootiology: Two adult forms: parasitic, parthenogenetic females and smaller, free-living, soil-dwelling males and females. Embryonated eggs passed in feces can develop into free-living (rhabditiform) or parasitic (filariform) larvae. The latter are infective via ingestion or active skin penetration. Either way, the larvae burrow into capillaries and are carried to the lungs, where they exit the vasculature and are carried up the trachea to be swallowed. S. stercoralis can cause serious disease from heavy infestation due to autoinfection (third stage infectious larvae can develop in the same host and penetrate via the rectal mucosa). Transcolostral and intrauterine infections probably occur in nonhuman primates. 3. Clinical: Dermatitis, diarrhea, with hemorrhage in some cases; debilitation; death in some cases. 4. Pathology: Inflammation in skin and other tissues associated with larval migration in sensitized hosts is characterized by eosinophils and focal necrosis. Parasitic females penetrate small intestinal crypts and glandular epithelium resulting in necrotizing and hemorrhagic enteritis. 5. Diagnosis: Fecal exam, signs, lesions with worms in crypts. 6. Control: Sanitation. 7. References: Battles AH, Greiner EC, Collins BR. 1988. Efficacy of ivermectin against natural infection of Strongyloides spp. in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). Lab Anim Sci 38:474-476. DePaoli A, Johnsen O. 1978. Fatal strongyloidiasis in gibbons (Hylobates lar). Vet Pathol 15:31-39. Hakim SZ, Genta RM. 1986. Fatal disseminated strongyloidiasis in a Vietnam war veteran. Arch Pathol Lab Med 110:809-812. Oesophagostomiasis 1. Agent: Oesophagostomum spp.; strongyles of family Trichonematidae. Species names somewhat confused, but in nonhuman primates usually O. stephanostomum. 2. Epizootiology: Broad host range, common in many New and Old World primates. Life cycle is direct, transmission by ingestion of infectious second stage larvae. Potentially zoonotic. 3. Clinical: Most inapparent, but heavy infestation can cause diarrhea, weight loss. 4. Pathology: Ingested larvae penetrate the wall of the colon and undergo the third ecdysis; ideally, most would return to the lumen in a few days, but many are trapped by the host's reaction and die. The response to molting and dead larvae results in subserosal nodules in the colon, up to 4 mm in diameter, firm, grey-white to black; contain caseous or mineralized material; some contain live worm but usually not. Inflammatory response is mixed, with many eosinophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes, and a thick fibrous capsule. Unusual complications include mucosal ulceration, penetration of the wall of the colon with focal to diffuse peritonitis, peritoneal adhesions. Rarely, disseminated nodules in liver, kidney, abdominal wall, urinary bladder, lung, and uterus. 5. Diagnosis: Eggs in feces; necropsy. 6. Control: Sanitation. 7. References: Chang J, McClure HM. 1975. Disseminated oesophagostomiasis in the rhesus monkey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 167:628-630. Lumb GD et al. 1985. Oesophagostomiasis in feral monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Toxicol Pathol 13:209-214. Horii Y et al. 1985. Neutrophilic nodules in the intestinal walls of Japanese monkeys associated with the neutrophil chemotactic acivity of larval extracts and secretions of Oesophagostomum aculeatum. Res Vet Sci 38:115-119. Prosthenorchiasis 1. Agents: Acanthocephalans. Prosthenorchis elegans & P. spirula are most common. Adults about 3-4 cm long. Moniliformis moniliformis has been found in chimps; adults can be over 10 cm long but usually are less. 2. Epizootiology: Common in South American monkeys, also affects apes and lemurs. Not found in wild outside of South America but has become established in some zoos, supply houses, and laboratory colonies. Indirect life cycle; natural intermediate hosts not known but cockroaches and certain beetles known to transmit experimentally. Normal host of M. moniliformis probably is rat. 3. Clinical: None to diarrhea, debilitation, even death in heavy infestation. 4. Pathology: Worms are attached usually at the terminal ileum, occasionally in colon. Proboscis buried deeply in wall, provoking chronic inflammatory reaction, often visible from serosal surface as pale nodules in wall. Abscesses form in some cases, and complete penetration can occur and result in peritonitis. 5. Diagnosis: Fecal exam, necropsy. 6. Control: Vermin control. Pulmonary Acariasis 1. Agent: Pneumonyssus simicola 2. Epizootiology: Very common in wild and captured Asian monkeys. Entire life cycle may occur in the lungs. Transmission unknown but may be by contact. 3. Clinical: None 4. Pathology: Lesions are minute up to 1-2 cm, soft, sometimes crepitant, yellow to tan foci in the lungs; they can be very numerous. Lesions contain dilated air spaces. Microscopic: bronchitis and bronchiolitis, focal pneumonitis with eosinophils, mites in airways which are often dilated, brown refractile pigment which is usually within macrophages and which can also be found microscopally or even grossly in bronchial lymph nodes. 5. Diagnosis: Necropsy. Differentiate from TB - lesions much softer, frequently cavitated. Can be demonstrated antemortem by tracheobronchial lavage. 6. Control: None 7. Reference: Joseph BE et al. 1984. Treatment of pulmonary acariasis in rhesus macaques with ivermectin. Lab Anim Sci 34:360-364. Miscellaneous Parasites 1. Nematodes (1) Nochtia nochti (Strongyle; family Trichostrongylidae). Nematode of stomach of Old World monkeys which causes polypoid mucosal hyperplasia. Differentiate from Physaloptera (spirurid; family Physalopteridae) which also is attached to the gastric mucosa. N. nochti has direct life cycle. India & SE Asia. (2) Hookworms, Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus (Anylostomatidae). Uncommon, could cause anemia. Zoonotic. (3) Molineus spp., esp. M. torulosus (Trichostrongylidae). Stomach and small intestine of New World primates. Can cause severe enteritis. Brack M et al. 1973. Pathogenic properties of Molineus torulosus in capuchin monkeys, Cebus apella. Lab Anim Sci 23:360. (4) Trichostrongylus colubriformis (Trichostrongylidae). Small intestine, could cause diarrhea. Zoonotic. (5) Ascaris lumbricoides (Ascaridae). Small intestine of macaques, apes, man. (6) Enterobius vermicularis, human pinworm, and E. anthropopitheci (order Ascaridida, family Oxyuridae), chimpanzee pinworm, cross-infect readily. Perineal pruritus. (7) Gongylonema sp. (order Spirurida, family Thelaziidae). Mucosa of esophagus, bronchi, stomach, lip, and tongue. Cockroach intermediate host. (8) Anatrichosoma spp., esp. A. cynomolgi (order Trichocephalida, family Anatrichosomatidae--other families are Trichinellidae and Trichuridae). Worms intraepidermal, sometimes subcutaneous, may be nonpathogenic or cause small (few mm) nodules on ears, lips, nares, eyelids. Breznock AW, Pulley LT. 1975. Anatrichosoma infection in two white-handed gibbons. J Am Vet Med Assoc 167:631-633. Ulrich CP et al. 1981. An epidemiological survey of wild caught and domestic born rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) for Anatrichosoma (Nematoda: Trichinellida). Lab Anim Sci 31:726-727. (9) Filaroides sp. (strongyles; family Filaroididae). Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli of New World primates. Subpleural "nodules", little reaction, not very pathogenic. (10) Trichospirura leptosoma (spirurid; family?). Pancreatic ducts. May cause chronic pancreatitis. Beglinger R et al. 1988. The parasite Trichospirura leptostoma associated with wasting disease in a colony of common marmosets, Callithrix jacchus. Folia Primatol (Basel) 51:45-51. (11) Dipetalonema sp. and Tetrapetalonema sp. (order Spirurida, family Setariidae). Peritoneal cavity of New World monkeys. Incidental finding at necropsy. Esslinger JH. 1982. Tetrapetalonema (T.) colombiensis sp. n. (Nematoda: Filarioidea) from Colombian primates. J Parasitol 68:1138-1141. Travi BL et al. 1985. Development of Dipetalonema gracile in the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus), with notes on its biology. J Parasitol 71:17-19. (12) Dirofilaria sp. (Filariidae) Lungs of Old World monkeys. (13) Capillaria hepatica (order Trichocephalida, family Trichuridae). Incidental finding in liver. (14) Pterygodermatites nycticebi. A spirurid recently reported to cause disease in tamarins. Cockroach intermediate host. Montali RJ et al. 1983. Pterygodermatites nycticebi (Nematoda:spirurida) in golden lion tamarins. Lab Anim Sci 33:194-197. (15) Edesonfilaria malayensis. A filarid that lives in abdominal and thoracic subserosa, produces eosinophilic granulomas. Gardiner CH et al. 1982. Diagnostic exercise. Edesonfilaria malayensis in 2 cynomolgus monkeys. Lab Anim Sci 32:601-602. Narama I et al. 1985. Microfilarial granulomas in the spleens of wild-caught cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). Vet Pathol 22:355-362. Nonoyama T et al. 1984. A pathological study in cynomolgus monkeys infected with Edesonfilaria malayensis. Lab Anim Sci 34:604-609. Yeh LS. 1960. Edesonfilaria malayensis gen. et sp. nov. from the longtailed macaque (Macaca irus). J Helminthol 34:125-128. (16) Trichuris sp. (Trichuridae) Loomis MR, Wright JF. 1986. Gastric trichuriasis in a black and white colobus monkey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 189:1214-1215. Ocholi RA, Chima JC, Spencer TH. 1989. Concurrent infection of a Patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas) by Citrobacter freundii and Trichuris trichiura. J Wildl Dis 25:124-125. (17) Wuchereria bancrofti (Spirurida, Filariidae) Palmieri JR et al. 1983. Bancroftian filiariasis--Wuchereria bancrofti infection in the silvered leaf monkey (Presbytis cristatus). Am J Primatol 112:383-386. (18) Angiostrongylus sp. (Filaroididae) Sly DL et al. 1982. Spontaneous occurrence of Angiostrongylus costaricensis in marmosets (Saguinus mystax). Lab Anim Sci 32:286-288. 2. Trematodes (1) Schistosomes (Digenea, Schistosomatidae). Schistosoma hematobium (Africa and Near East), S. mansoni (Africa, Near East, and Latin America), and S. japonicum (China, Phillipines, and Far East), same spp. as in man. Apes and Old World monkeys, little clinical disease in contrast to human schistosomiasis. S. hematobium and S. mansoni inhabit branches of the portal and mesenteric veins; S. japonicum, pelvic veins. The eggs of S. mansoni have a prominent lateral spine; those of S. hematobium a terminal spine. Damian RT et al. 1986. The fecundity of Schistosoma mansoni in chronic nonhuman primate infections and after transplantation into naive hosts. J Parasitol 72:741-747. del Portillo HA, Damian RT. 1986. Experimental Schistosoma mansoni infection in a small New World monkey, the saddle-back tamarin (Saguinus fuscicollis). Am J Trop Med Hyg 35:515-522. Else JG, Satzger M. 1982. Natural infections of Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium in cercopithecus monkeys in Kenya. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 76:111-112. Kuntz RE et al. 1979. Distribution of egg deposits and gross lesions in nonhuman primates infected with Schistosoma haematobium (Iran). J Med Primatol 8:167-178. Sturrock RF et al. 1984. Experimental Schistosoma mansoni infection in vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) in Kenya: I. Susceptibility to a primary infection. J Helminthol 58:79-92. (2) Athesmia foxi and Eurytrema sp. (Dicrocoeliidae) occur in biliary and pancreatic ducts of New World and Old World monkeys, respectively. Other liver or biliary flukes: Fasciola hepatica, Opisthorchis sinensis, Fasciolopsis buski, Platynosomum sp., Dicrocoelium sp., Phaneropsolus sp., Brodenia serrata. Kumar V, DeMeuichy W, Van Peer L. 1980. Microscopic pathology of liver of capuchin monkeys (Cebus albifrons) infected with Athesmia foxi (dicrocoelidae:trematoda): A pictorial illustration. Acta Zool Pathol Antwerp (75):71-77. (3) Gastrodiscoides hominis (Paramphistomatidae) is a common intestinal fluke (small intestine and cecum) of Old World monkeys. Can be pathogenic. Watsonius watsoni is much less common. (4) Paragonimus westermanii (Troglotrematidae) can infect primates, including man. 3. Cestodes (1) Echinococcus granulosus (Cyclophyllidea, Taeniidae). Hydatid disease in nonhuman primates and man. (2) Hymenolepis nana (Cyclophyllidea, Hymenolepididae). Rodents are usual host. Direct life cycle (can have autoinfection). Zoonotic. (3) Bertiella studeri (Cyclophyllidea, Anoplocephalidae). Common in Old World monkeys and apes. Zoonotic. Crockett EC. 1985. Bertiella studeri in a mona monkey (Cercopithecus mona mona) in Nigeria. Vet Rec 116:268. (4) Larval Taeniidae: Multiceps sp. (coenuri) & Taenia sp. (cysticerci); Diphyllobothriidae (Pseudophyllidea): Diphyllobothrium erinacei and Spirometra sp. (spargana). Price TC et al. 1989. Coenuriasis in a spectacled langur (Presbytis obscura): praziquantel treatment and the antibody response to cyst antigens. Am J Trop Med Hyg 40:514-520. (5) Adults of several other spp. in intestine: Raillietina sp., Monezia sp., Atriotenia sp., etc. 4. Pentastomids Phylum Arthropoda, family Porocephalidae. Larvae of Linguatula sp., Armillifer sp., Porocephalus sp., etc., C-shaped, found in abdominal cavity incidentally at surgery or necropsy. Large snakes are definitive hosts. Cosgrove GE et al. 1970. The pathology of pentastomid infection in primates. Lab Anim Sci 20:354-360. Lok JB, Kirkpatrick CE. 1987. Pentastomiasis in captive monkeys. Lab Anim Sci 37:494- 496. 5. Arthropods (1) Lice: Pedicinus spp. (anopluran or sucking lice) infest widely distributed Asian, African, and South American primates. They usually are not pathogenic, although there is a report of severe pediculosis in a young rhesus monkey infested with P. eurygaster. Sathrax durus infestation reported in tree shrews (Tupaia glis). Infestations with lice of man, e. g., Pediculus hominis, possible. Durden LA, DeBruyn EJ. 1984. Louse infestations of tree shrews (Tupaia glis). Lab Anim Sci 34:188-190. Mader DR, Anderson JH, Roberts J. 1989. Management of an infestation of sucking lice in a colony of rhesus macaques. Lab Anim Sci 39:252-255. Rahaman H. 1975. Ectoparasitism in Macaca radiata. Lab Anim Sci 25:505. Wimsatt JH et al. 1988. An infestation of sucking lice in a juvenile rhesus macaque. Lab Anim Sci 38:203-204. (2) Fleas: Human, dog, cat fleas: Pulex irritans, Ctenocephalides spp. (3) Demodex sp. Hickey TE et al. 1983. Demodectic mange in a tamarin (Saguinus geoffroyi) Lab Anim Sci 33:192-195. (4) Psoroptic, sarcoptic, and psorergatic mange. Baskin GB et al. 1984. Diagnostic exercise: Skin lesions in sooty mangabeys. Lab Anim Sci 34:602-603. (Psorergates cercopitheci). Bowman TA, Griffith JW. 1987. Comparison of treatments for Psorergates mites in stumptailed macaques (Macaca arctoides). Lab Anim Sci 37:100-103. Brack M, Gatesman TJ, Fuchs E. 1989. Otacariasis in tree shrews (Tupaia belangeri) caused by Criokeron quintus. Lab Anim Sci 39:79-80. Lee KJ et al. 1981. Psorergatic mange (Acari:Psororgatidae) of the stumptail macaque (Macaca arctoides). Lab Anim Sci 31:77-79. Raulston GL. 1972. Psorergatic mites in patas monkeys. Lab Anim Sci 22:107-108. Seier JV. 1985. Psorergatic acariasis in vervet monkeys. Lab Animal 19:236-239. Sheldon WG. 1966. Psorergatic mange in the sooty mangabey (Cercocebus torquates atys) monkey. Lab Anim Care 16:276-279. 6. Leech Phylum Annelida. Dinobdella ferox, nasal leech. Fox JG, Ediger RD. 1970. Nasal leech infestation in the rhesus monkey. Lab Anim Sci 20:1137-1138. Miscellaneous and General References--Parasites Abbot P, Majeed SK. 1984. A survey of parasitic lesions in wild-caught laboratory- maintained primates (rhesus, cynomolgus, and baboon). Vet Pathol 21:198-207. Appleton CC et al. 1986. The gastrointestinal parasites of Papio ursinus from the Drahenburg Mountains, Republic of South Africa. Int J Primatol 7:449-456. Eberhard ML. 1981. Intestinal parasitism in an outdoor breeding colony of Macaca mulatta. Lab Anim Sci 31:282-285. Flynn RJ. Parasites of Laboratory Animals. Iowa State University Press, Ames IA, 1973. Itoh K et al. 1988. Helminth parasites of the Japanese monkey, Macaca fuscata fuscata in Ehime Prefecture, Japan. Jpn J Vet Res 36:235-247. Kazacos KR et al. 1981. Raccoon ascarid larvae as a cause of fatal central nervous system disease in subhuman primates. J Am Vet Med Assoc 179:1089-1094. Kessler MJ et al. 1984. Intestinal parasites of the free-ranging Cayo Santiago rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). J Med Primatol 13:57-66. Nasher AK. 1988. Zoonotic parasite infections of the Arabian sacred baboon Papio hamadryas arabicus Thomas in Asir Province, Saudi Arabia. Ann Parasitol Hum Comp 63:448-454. Porter JA Jr. 1972. Parasites of marmosets. Lab Anim Sci 22:503-506. Rahama H. 1975. Ectoparasitism in Macaca radiata. Lab Anim Sci 25:505. Toft J II. 1982. The pathoparasitology of the alimentary tract and pancreas of nonhuman primates: A review. Vet Pathol 19(Suppl 7):44-92. Wong MM, Conrad H. 1978. Prevalence of metazoan parasite infection in five species of Asian macaques. Lab Anim Sci 28:412. Scurvy 1. Cause: Vitamin C deficiency. Out-of-date, improperly stored, or improperly formulated diets. 2. Clinical: Weight loss, weakness, anemia, bleeding of gums, loss of teeth, increased susceptibility to infectious disease. 3. Pathology: Gingivitis, gingival bleeding; subcutaneous, muscular, joint, and subperiosteal hemorrhage; fractures, especially epiphyseal in young. Microscopic: hemorrhages, decreased osteoid formation at epiphyses. 4. Diagnosis: Keep in mind, often die of infectious disease before develop overt scurvy. Lesions, check diet. 5. Control: Make sure diet has adequate vitamin C; 1-5 mg/kg daily needed for growth. Vitamin D Deficiency 1. Cause: Inadequate dietary vitamin D. New World primates require D3, Old World primates can use D2. 2. Clinical: Reluctance to climb or jump, distortion of limbs and spine, epiphyseal swelling, spontaneous fractures, increased SAP. 3. Pathology: Wide, irregular epiphyses with increased osteoid formation; demineralization and decreased thickness of cortical compact bone. 4. Diagnosis: Signs, lesions, diet analysis. 5. Control: Provide adequate vitamin D, 2-8 IU/g diet; or OWP about 200 IU/day, NWP about 400 IU/day. 6. Reference: Holick MF, Clark MB. 1978. The photobiogenesis and metabolism of Vitamin D. Fed Proc 37:2567-2574. Neoplasms Neoplasms are reported in nonhuman primates less often than might be expected from comparisons with other species. It is probable that the true situation resembles that in other species, but because these animals are generally long-lived, tumors may be observed less often. Amyx HL et al. 1982. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma with intracranial extension in a chimpanzee. J Am Vet Med Assoc 181:1425-1426. Banks RE et al. 1988. Surgical excision of an ameloblastic odontoma in a cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis). Lab Anim Sci 38:316-319. Baskerville M et al. 1984. Undifferentiated carcinoma of the nasal tissues in the common marmoset. J Comp Pathol 94:329-328. Baskin G et al. 1982. Ovarian teratoma in an African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops). Vet Pathol 19:219-221. Baskin G, Hubbard GB. 1980. Ameloblastic odontoma in a baboon (Papio anubis). Vet Pathol 17:100-102. Bennett BT et al. 1982. Malignant nephroblastoma in Macaca fascicularis. Lab Anim Sci 32:403-404. Betton GR. 1984. Spontaneous neoplasms of the marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Oral and nasopharyngeal squamous cell carcinomas. Vet Pathol 21:193-197. Blanchard JL, Watson EA. 1988. Spontaneous rhabdomyosarcoma in a rhesus monkey. J Comp Pathol 99:109-113. Brack M, Martin P. 1984. Trichoepithelioma in a Barbary ape (Macaca sylvanus): Review of cutaneous tumors in nonhuman primates and case report. J Med Primatol 13:159-164. Brack M. 1985. Renal papillary adenoma in a cotton-topped tamarin (Saguinus oedipus). Lab Anim 19:132-133. Brack M. 1985. Tumors in dwarf galagos (Galagoides demidovii). Vet Pathol 22:344-346. Brack M. 1988. Intestinal carcinomas in two tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis, Saguinus oedipus) of the German Primate Centre. Lab Anim 22:144-147. Brack M. 1988. Malignant Leydig cell tumour in a Tupaia belangeri: case report and literature review of male genital tumours in non-human primates. Lab Anim 22:131-134. Bretton GR. 1984. Spontaneous neoplasms of the marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Oral and nasopharyngeal squamous cell carcinomas. Vet Pathol 21:193-197. Bunton TE, Bacmeister CX. 1989. Diverticulosis and colonic leiomyosarcoma in an aged rhesus macaque. Vet Pathol 26:351-352. Bunton TE, Lollini L. 1983. Ovarian adenocarcinoma in a bonnet monkey: Histologic and ultrastructural features. J Med Primatol 12:106-111. Chalifoux LV, King NW. 1983. Eosinophilic myelocytoma in an owl monkey (Aotus trivirgatus). Lab Anim Sci 33:189-191. Chrisp CE et al. 1985. Bilateral undifferentiated renal sarcomas in a rhesus monkey. Vet Pathol 22:516-517. Crews LM, Kerber WT, Feinman H. 1967. An ovarian tumor of dual nature in a rhesus monkey. Path Vet 4:157-161. Davis JA, Banks RE, Young D. 1988. Ameloblastic odontoma in a cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis). Lab Anim Sci 38:312-315. DePaoli A, McClure HM. 1982. Gastrointestinal neoplasms in nonhuman primates. A review and report of 11 new cases. Vet Pathol 19(Suppl.7): 93-103. Eydelloth RS, Swindle MM. 1983. Intraductal mammary carcinoma and benign ovarian teratoma in a rhesus monkey. J Med Primatol 12:101-105. Falk LA. 1974. Oncogenic DNA viruses of nonhuman primates: A review. Lab Ani Sci 24:182-192. Fanton JW et al. 1984. Adenocarcinoma of the small intestine in two rhesus monkeys. J Am Vet Med Assoc 185:1377. Fincham JE et al. 1982. Squamous cell carcinoma in an African green monkey. Vet Pathol 19:450-453. Gardner MB et al. 1978. Myelomonocytic leukemia in an orangutan. Vet Pathol 15:667- 670. Gleiser CA, Carey K. 1983. Malignant fibrous histiocytoma in a baboon. Lab Anim Sci 33:389-381. Gleiser CA et al. 1984. Malignant lymphoma and Hodgkin's disease in baboons (Papio sp.). Lab Anim Sci 34:286-289. Graham CE, McClure HM. 1976. Sertoli-Leydig cell tumor in a chimpanzee. Lab Anim Sci 26:948-950. Graham CE, McClure HM. 1977. Ovarian tumors and related lesions in aged chimpanzees. Vet Pathol 14:380-386. Holmberg CA et al. 1978. Cellular immunologic studies of malignant lymphoma in rhesus macaques. Am J Vet Res 39:469. Holmberg CA et al. 1985. Malignant lymphoma in a colony of Macaca arctoides. Vet Pathol 22:42-45. Holscher MA et al. 1984. Monocytic leukemia in a greater bushbaby (Galago crassicaudatus argentatus). Lab Anim Sci 34:619-620. Holscher MA et al. 1986. Multihormonal islet cell carcinoma in a greater bushbaby (Galago crassicaudatus argentatus). Vet Pathol 23:80-82. Hubbard GB et al. 1983. Squamous cell carcinoma with metastasis in a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Lab Anim Sci 33:469-472. Hubbard GB et al. 1984. Mammary carcinoma with metastases in a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Vet Pathol 21:531-533. Hubbard GB et al. 1984. Paralysis due to a glomangioma in a Macaca mulatta. Lab Anim Sci 34:614-615. Hubbard GB et al. 1985. Prostatic carcinoma in a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Vet Pathol 22:88-90. Hubbard GB, Wood H. 1984. Glomangiomas in four irradiated Macaca mulatta. Vet Pathol 21:609-610. Jaax NK, Petrali JP, Jaax JP. 1988. Lymphoma of the pharynx and abdominal wall in two cynomolgus monkeys. Lab Anim Sci 38:198-200. Jayo MJ et al. 1990. T-cell lymphosarcoma in a female African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops). Lab Anim Sci 40:37-41. Keymer IF, Hime JM. 1974. Three cases of suspected mammary neoplasia in nonhuman primates. J Comp Pathol 84:351-364. Kirkwood JK, James MP. 1983. Myeloproliferative disease in a cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus oediupus). Lab Anim 17:70-73. Kommineni C et al. 1978. Kidney carcinoma in a male cynomolgus monkey. Vet Pathol 15:569-570. Manning JS, Griesemer RA. 1974. Spontaneous lymphoma of the nonhuman primate. Lab Anim Sci 24:204-210. Martin CB, Misenhimer HR, Ramsey EM. 1970. Ovarian tumors in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta): Report of three cases. Lab Anim Sci 20:686-692. McCarthy TJ et al. 1990. Spontaneous malignant lymphoma and leukemia in a simian T-lymphotropic virus type I (STLV-I) antibody positive olive baboon. Lab Anim Sci 40:79-81. McClure HM, Graham CE. 1973. Malignant uterine mesotheliomas in squirrel monkeys following diethyl stilbesterol administration. Lab Anim Sci 23:493-498. McIntosh GH et al. 1985. Spontaneous nasopharyngeal malignancies in the common marmoset. Vet Pathol 22:86-88. Morin ML et al. 1980. Squamous cell carcinoma with metastasis in a cynomolgus monkey. Lab Anim Sci 30:110-111. O'Gara RW, Adamson RH. Spontaneous and induced neoplasma in nonhuman primates. Pathology of Simian Primates, part I. Ed. by Fiennes, RN: S Karger, Switzerland 1972, pg. 190-238. Ohgaki H et al. 1984. Squamous cell carcinoma found in the cardiac region of the stomach of an aged orangutan. Gann 75:415-417. Port CD, Dal Corobbo MD, Kofman S. 1990. Idiopathic diabetes insipidus in a rhesus macaque. Lab Anim Sci 40:84-86. Prowten AW et al. 1985. T-cell lymphoma associated with immunologic evidence of retrovirus infection in a lowland gorilla. J Am Vet Med Assoc 187:1280-1282. Rangar SRS, Gallagher RE. 1979. Tumors and viruses in nonhuman primates. Adv Virus Res vol. 24. Richter CB, Buyukmihci N. 1979. Squamous cell carcinoma of the epidermis in an aged white-lipped tamarin (Saguinus fuscicollis leucogenys Gray). Vet Pathol 16:263-265. Sakakibara I et al. 1986. Spontaneous malignant lymphoma in an African green monkey naturally infected with simian T-lymphotropic virus (STLV). J Med Primatol 15:311- 318. Seibold HR, Wolf RH. 1973. Neoplasma and proliferative lesions in 1065 nonhuman primate necropsies. Lab Anim Sci 23:533-539. Sembrat RF, Fritz GR. 1979. Long bone osteosarcoma in a rhesus monkey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 175:971-974. Shaler M. 1980. Myxoma of bone in a nonhuman primate. Cancer 45:2573-2582. Skavlen PA et al. 1988. Malignant fibrous histiocytoma in a bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata). Lab Anim Sci 38:310-311. Slayter MV. 1988. Nasal cavity carcinosarcoma in a bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata). J Med Primatol 17:49-56. Suleman MA et al. 1984. A spontaneous bronchogenic carcinoma in a Sykes monkey (Cereopithecus mitus stuhlmani). J Med Primatol 13:153-158. Tekeli S, Ford TM. 1980. Spontaneous intraductal mammary carcinoma in a rhesus monkey. Vet Pathol 17:502-504. Terrell TG, Gribble H, Osburn BI. 1980. Malignant lymphoma in macaques. A clinicopathologic study of 45 cases. J Natl Cancer Inst 64:561-568. Tsai CC, Giddens WE Jr. 1983. Adenocarcinoma of Brunner's glands in a baboon (Papio cynocephalus). Lab Anim Sci 33:603-605. Tsai CC, Giddens WE Jr. 1985. Clear cell carcinoma of the lung in a pigtailed macaque. Lab Anim Sci 35-85. Tsuchitani M, Narama I. 1984. Pituitary thyrotroph adenoma in a cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis). Vet Pathol 21:444-447. Uno H, Warner TF. 1982. Plasmacytomas in rhesus monkeys. Arch Pathol Lab Med 106:278-281. Wadsworth PF et al. 1980. Mammary neoplasia in ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta). Vet Pathol 17:386-388. Colonic Adenocarcinoma and Wasting Syndrome in Marmosets 1. Cause: Unknown. 2. Disease: Wasting, chronic colitis, adenocarcinoma in high percentage. Proposed as model for human colonic carcinoma. 3. References: Barnard D, Knapka J, Renquist D. 1988. The apparent reversal of a wasting syndrome by nutritional intervention in Saguinus mystax. Lab Anim Sci 38:282-288. Brack M. 1988. Intestinal carcinomas in two tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis, Saguinus oedipus) of the German Primate Centre. Lab Anim 22:144-147. Chalifoux LV et al. 1982. An analysis of the association of gastroenteric lesions with chronic wasting syndrome of marmosets. Vet Pathol 7(Suppl):141-162. Chalifoux LV, Bronson RT. 1981. Colonic adenocarcinoma associated with chronic colitis in cotton-top marmosets, Saguinus oedipus. Gastroenterology 80:942-946. Clapp NK et al. 1988. Effect of various biological factors on spontaneous marmoset and tamarin colitis. A retrospective histopathologic study. Dig Dis Sci 33:1013-1019. Flurer CI, Zucker H. 1988. Coprophagy in marmosets due to insufficient protein (amino acid) intake. Lab Anim 22:330-331. Kirkwood JK et al. 1986. Adenocarcinoma of the large bowel and colitis in captive cotton-top tamarins Saguinus o. oedipus. J Comp Pathol 96:507-516. Lee YC et al. 1989. Analysis of T lymphocyte subsets in tamarins with colitis and colon cancer. Am J Med Sci 297:118-122. Lewis DH et al. 1987. Fecal microflora of marmosets with wasting marmoset syndrome. Lab Anim Sci 37:103-105. Lushbaugh CC et al. 1978. Spontaneous colonic adenocarcinoma in marmosets. Primate Med 10:119-134. Lushbaugh CC et al. 1984. Colonic adenocarcinoma, Model No. 286. In Handbook: Animal Models of Human Disease, Fasc 13. Ed. CC Capan, DB Hackel, TC Jones, G Migaki. Reg Comp Pathol, AFIP, Washington, DC. Madara JL et al. 1985. Characterization of spontaneous colitis in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) and its response to sulfasalazine. Gastroenterology 88:13-19. Poleshchuk VP et al. 1988. Diseases of wild-caught moustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax) in captivity. Z Versuchstierkd 31:69-75. Richter CB. 1981. Mucinous adenocarcinoma of the colon in a cotton-topped tamarin. Lab Anim Sci 31:137-138. Richter CB et al. 1980. Cancer of the colon in the nonhuman primate Saguinus oedipus oedipus. Proc Symp Comp Path Zoo Anim 567-571. Shimwell M et al. 1979. Dietary habits relating to "wasting marmoset syndrome" (WMS). Lab Anim 13:139-142. Snook SS et al. 1989. Focal ulcerative ileocolitis with terminal thrombocytopenic purpura in juvenile cotton top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus). Lab Anim Sci 39:109-114. Tardif SD et al. 1988. Maintenance of cotton-top tamarins fed an experimental pelleted diet versus a highly diverse sweetened diet. Lab Anim Sci 38:588-591. Gastric Dilation 1. Cause: Unknown. Accidental overfeeding, normal feeding after food restriction, decreased gastric motility, Clostridium perfringens may be factors. 2. Clinical: Often found dead; abdominal distention, shock, hemorrhage from nose and mouth. 3. Pathology: Extremely dilated stomach filled with gas and fluid. 4. Diagnosis: Signs, lesions; differentiate from post mortem gas accumulation. 5. Control: Feed smaller amounts of food more frequently and during active part of day(?). 6. References: Pond CL et al. 1982. Acute gastric dilation in nonhuman primates: Review and case studies. Vet Pathol 19(Suppl.7):126-133. Soave OA. 1978. Observations on gastric dilation in nonhuman primates. Lab Anim Sci 28:331-334. Endometriosis 1. Cause: Unknown. Associated with repeated hysterotomies, C-sections, age, and multiple pregnancies, but can also occur without association with these factors. 2. Clinical: Often none. May be palpable abdominal masses, distress associated with menstruation. 3. Pathology: Multiple pelvic adhesions, cysts containing opaque brown fluid, enlarged uterus. Lesions often contain histologically normal differentiated uterine endometrium (epithelium, stroma, or both) but in some cases, it is difficult or impossible to find. 4. Diagnosis: Signs and lesions. 5. References: DaRif CA et al. 1984. Endometriosis with bacterial peritonitis in a baboon. Lab Anim Sci 34:491-493. DiGiacomo RF, McCann TO. 1970. Gynecologic pathology in the Macaca mulatta. I. Am J Obstet Gynecol 108:538-542. Fanton JW et al. 1986. Endometriosis: Clinical and pathologic findings in 70 rhesus monkeys. Am J Vet Res 47:1537-1541. Fanton JW, Hubbard GB. 1983. Spontaneous endometriosis in a cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis). Lab Anim Sci 33:597-599. Lindberg BS, Busch C. 1984. Endometriosis in rhesus monkeys. Ups J Med Sci 89:129- 134. McKenzie WF, Casey HW. 1975. Endometriosis in rhesus monkeys. Am J Pathol 80:341. McCann TO, Myers RE. 1970. Endometriosis in rhesus monkeys. Am J Obstet Gynecol 106:516-523. Robbins SL, Cotran RS, Kumar V (eds). Pathologic Basis of Disease, 3rd ed., W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, 1984, pp. 1130-1132. Saegusa J, Tanioka Y, Koizumi H. 1989. Massive endometriosis in two rhesus monkeys. Jikken Dobutsu 38:275-278. Schaerdel AO. 1986. Pelvic endometriosis associated with infarctions of the colon in a rhesus monkey. Lab Anim Sci 36:533-535. Schenken RS et al. 1984. Etiology of infertility in monkeys with endometriosis: luteinized unruptured follicles, luteal phase defects, pelvic adhesions, and spontaneous abortions. Fertil Steril 41:122-130. Schiffer SP et al. 1984. Hemoperitoneum associated with endometriosis in a rhesus monkey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 185:1375. Pregnancy "Toxemia" (Eclampsia) 1. Cause: Not completely understood, but alterations in arachidonic acid metabolites clearly are important. In normal pregnancies, amounts of vasodilating, platelet-disaggregating prostaglandins (PGI2 and PGE) in the circulation are increased and may account for many of the hemodynamic changes characteristic of pregnancy. Normal pregnant women become resistant to angiotensin, which is thought to be mediated by PGE produced by the vessels of the uterus and placenta. Pre-eclampsia is characterized by relative increases in the vasoconstricting, platelet-aggregating prostaglandins (thromboxane A2 and PGF2à). Women with toxemia become hypersensitive to angiotensin, and their placentae appear to produce less PGE than normal. Also, there may be increased production of renin by the placenta in toxemic patients. The initiating event for these abnormalities is not known with certainty, but may be related to reduced uteroplacental blood flow, perhaps by compression of the vessels by the gravid uterus. In many cases of toxemia, the uterine arteries have degenerative and necrotizing changes ("acute atherosis"). It is not known whether these lesions are cause or effect, but there is some evidence that they could be immune-mediated. DIC may result from increased output of "thromboplastic substances;" the presence of the vascular lesions probably also contributes. 2. Clinical: As the term is used in human medicine, toxemia of pregnancy refers to both pre- eclampsia and eclampsia. Pre-eclampsia is characterized by hypertension, proteinuria, and edema. It occurs in about 6% of pregnant women, usually in the last trimester, and is more common in the first pregnancy. A few patients become more seriously ill, with coma and convulsions (eclampsia). These patients have DIC and may have lesions in the liver, kidneys, heart, placenta, and brain. The disease in laboratory primates is closely similar. 3. Pathology: In addition to uterine vascular lesions, there may be disseminated capillary thrombosis, a manifestation of DIC. Glomerular thrombosis can lead to bilateral renal cortical necrosis in extreme cases. There might be lesions of hypertension, e.g., hemorrhage, vascular necrosis, if it is severe enough. 4. Treatment: C-section or delivery. 5. References: Baird JN Jr. 1981. Eclampsia in a lowland gorilla. Am J Obstet Gynecol 141:345-346. Cavanagh D et al. 1985. Pregnancy-induced hypertension: development of a model in the pregnant primate (Papio anubis). Am J Obstet Gynecol 151:987-999. Friedman SA. 1988. Preeclampsia: a review of the role of prostaglandins. Obstet Gynecol 71:122-137. Labarrere CA. 1988. Acute atherosis. A histopathological hallmark of immune aggression? Placenta 9:95-108. Lindheimer MD, Katz AI. 1989. Preeclampsia: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management. Annu Rev Med 40:233-250. Palmer AE et al. 1979. Spontaneous pre-eclamptic toxemia of pregnancy in the patas monkey. Lab Anim Sci 29:102-106. Robbins SL, Cotran RS, Kumar V. 1984. Pathologic Basis of Disease, 3rd ed., WB Saunders Co., Philadelphia, pp. 1155-1156. Sheehan HL, Lynch JB. 1973. Pathology of Toxemia of Pregnancy. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore. Airsacculitis Orangutan, baboon, and others have saccular diverticula of the respiratory tract which extend into the subcutis of the neck; in orangutans they are particularly large and reach to the axillae. A wide variety of bacteria, particularly fecal organisms, can cause purulent inflammation of these organs, which clinically results in fluctuant swellings of the neck. In some cases purulent bronchopneumonia results from aspiration of exudate. Treatment: drainage. Fight Wounds Common any time monkeys are housed together. Often become infected with Staph, Strep, various fecal organisms. Amyloidosis Fairly common in some colonies. Prevalence of AA vs light chain amyloid not known--not well enough studied--but clearly many are secondary to chronic infections. Distribution is much as would be expected: liver, spleen, kidneys, small intestine. Also see in pancreatic islets in diabetes mellitus. Blanchard JL et al. 1986. Generalized amyloidosis in rhesus monkeys. Vet Pathol 23:425-430. Chapman WL, Crowell WA. 1977. Amyloidosis in rhesus monkeys with rheumatoid arthritis and enterocolitis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 171:855-858. Cromeens DM, Stephens LC. 1985. Insular amyloidosis and diabetes mellitus in a crab- eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis). Lab Anim Sci 35:642-645. Doepel FM et al. 1984. Secondary amyloidosis in rhesus monkeys with chronic indwelling venous catheters. Lab Anim Sci 34:494-496. PCB and PBB Toxicosis 1. Cause: Polychlorinated and polybrominated biphenyls. 2. Clinical: Experimentally, small amounts (< 1 ppm) in food or water caused menstrual abnormalities, reduced fertility, small fetuses. Larger amounts (< 300 ppm) result in alopecia, subcutaneous edema, leukopenia, anemia, hypoproteinemia, increased SGPT. 3. Pathology: Proliferative gastritis, enteritis, sometimes with ulcers. 4. Diagnosis: Demonstrate exposure; tissue analysis. 5. Control: Eliminate exposure. Some primates seem extremely sensitive; toxicosis has resulted from PCB-containing concrete sealer and is thought to have resulted from soldering flux residue in water lines. 6. References: Allen JR et al. 1974. Residual effects of short-term low-level exposure of nonhuman primates to polychlorinated biphenyls. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 30:440. Allen JR et al. 1978. Effects of polybrominated biphenyls in nonhuman primates. J Am Vet Med Assoc 173:1485. Altman NH et al. 1979. A spontaneous outbreak of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) toxicity in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta): Clinical observations. Lab Anim Sci 29:661. Becker GM et al. 1979. Polychlorinated biphenyl-induced morphologic changes in the gastric mucosa of the rhesus monkey. Lab Invest 40:373. Geistfeld JG et al. 1982. Mucinous gastric hyperplasia in a colony of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) induced by polychlorinated biphenyl (Arachlor 1254). Lab Anim Sci 32:83-86. Hori S et al. 1982. Effect of polychlorinated biphenyls and polychlorinated quaterphenyls in cynomolgus monkeys. Toxicol 24:123-129. Hsu IC et al. 1975. Metabolic fate of 3H-2,5,2',5'-tetra-chlorobiphenyl in infant nonhuman primates. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 14:233-240. McConnell EE et al. 1979. A spontaneous outbreak of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) toxicity in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta): Toxicopathology. Lab Anim Sci 29:666. McNulty WP et al. 1980. Chronic toxicity of 3,4,3',4'and 2,5,2',5' tetrachlorobiphenyls in rhesus macaques. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 56:182-190. McNulty WP. 1982. Diagnostic exercise. Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) poisoning. Lab Anim Sci 32:249-250. Scotti TM. 1973. Simian gastropathy with submucosal glands and cysts. Arch Pathol 96:403-408. Thomas PT, Hinschill R. 1978. Effect of polychlorinated biphenyls on the immune responses of rhesus monkeys and mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 44:41-51. Uemura E et al. 1979. Menetrier's disease in a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). J Med Primatol 8:252-256. Lead Toxicosis 1. Cause: Usually ingestion of lead-based paint. 2. Clinical: Various CNS signs including seizures, blindness, and depression. 3. Pathology: Lesions may not be prominent, but expect cerebral cortical degeneration, acid- fast inclusions in nuclei of renal tubular epithelium. 4. Diagnosis: Demonstration of exposure, tissue analysis. 5. Control: Eliminate exposure. 6. References: Hruban Z et al. 1986. Diffuse nodular hyperplasia and fibrosis of the liver in lead poisoned mandrills. J Med Primatol 15:245-258. Lumei JT, Dorrestein GM. 1986. Icterus and amaurosis caused by lead poisoning in a cynomolgys monkey (Macaca fascicularis). Vet Rec 18:118. Zook BC et al. 1972. Acute amaurotic epilepsy caused by lead poisoning in nonhuman primates. J Am Vet Med Assoc 161:683-686. Zook BC et al. 1973. Some factors affecting the occurrence of lead poisoning in captive primates. J. Med Primatol 2:206-217. Zook BC et al. 1976. Experimental lead paint poisoning in nonhuman primates. I. Clinical signs and course. J Med Primatol 5:23-40. Zook BC et al. 1980. Experimental lead paint poisoning in nonhuman primates. II. Clinical pathologic findings and behavioral effects. J Med Primatol 9:286-303. Zook BC et al. 1980. Experimental lead paint poisoning in nonhuman primates. III. Pathologic findings. J Med Primatol 9:343-360. Miscellaneous References-Primates Adams RJ, Bishop JL. 1980. An oral disease resembling noma in six rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Lab Anim Sci 30:85-91. Benirschke K et al. 1985. The pathology of prosimians, especially lemurs. Adv Vet Sci Comp Med 30:167-208. Brack M, Gatesman TJ. 1989. Bilateral posterior parietal atrophy in an infant rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). J Med Primatol 18:43-54. Brack M, Rothe H. 1982. Organophosphate poisoning in marmosets. Lab Anim 16:186- 188. Brack M. 1982. Noma in Saguinus oedipus: A report of 2 cases. Lab Anim 16:361-363. Brack M. 1988. IgM-mesangial nephropathy in callithricids. Vet Pathol 25:270-276. Bronson RT et al. 1982. Fatal fasting syndrome of obese macaques. Lab Anim Sci 32:187-192. Buchanan W Jr. 1981. Noma in a nonhuman primate. Oral Surg 52:19-22. Bunton TE. 1986. Incidental lesions in nonhuman primate placentae. Vet Pathol 23:431- 438. Burek J et al. 1972. Inclusions in the transitional epithelium of rhesus monkeys. Vet Pathol 9:212-220. Butler TM. 1987. Spontaneous hydrocephalus in baboons. Lab Anim Sci 37:492-493. Citino SB et al. 1985. Eosinophilic enterocolitis in a juvenile orangutan. J Am Vet Med Assoc 187:1279-1280. Clarkson TB et al. 1976. Atherosclerosis in New World monkeys. Primate Med 9:90-144. 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Spontaneous periodontitis in a sample group of the monkey Macaca fascicularis. J Periodont Res 23:265-267. Gonder JC et al. 1982. Myocardial infarction in a rhesus macaque. J Am Vet Med Assoc 181:1417. Hansen JF et al. 1984. Diffuse myocardial fibrosis and congestive heart failure in an adult male chimpanzee. Vet Pathol 21:529-531. Harris RL et al. 1984. Villus atrophy and malabsorption in a rhesus monkey. Lab Anim Sci 34:610-613. Hayes KS et al. 1972. An aortitis in the squirrel monkey and its effect on atherosclerosis. Exp Mol Pathol 17:347-354. Howard CF Jr, Kessler MJ, Schwartz S. 1989. Abnormalities in insulin secretion and glucose clearance among Macaca mulatta examined on Cayo Santiago. P R Health Sci J 8:107-110. Hugo N et al. 1988. Atrio-ventricular block in a baboon (Papio ursinus). J Med Primatol 17:135-144. Hunt R et al. 1976. Glomerulonephritis in the owl monkey (Aotus trivirgatus). Lab Anim Sci 26:1088-1092. Jacobs RL et al. 1984. Nasal polyposis in a chimpanzee. J Allergy Clin Immunol 74:61- 63. Jasty V et al. 1984. An unusual case of ceroid-liposfuscinosis in a cynomolgus monkey. Vet Pathol 21:46-50. Jayo MJ et al. 1988. Psoriatic plaques in Macaca fascicularis. Vet Pathol 25:282-285. Jerome CP. 1987. Craniorachischisis in a squirrel monkey. Lab Anim Sci 37:76-79. Johnson PT, Chadwick G. 1977. Canine tooth clipping by animal trappers as a suspected cause of dental abscess in the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus). Lab Anim Sci 27:525-526. Jurmain R. 1989. Trauma, degenerative disease, and other pathologies among the Gombe chimpanzees. Am J Phys Anthropol 80:229-237. Kaplan CG. 1979. Intrauterine infections in nonhuman primates. J Med Primatol 8:233- 243. Kessler MJ et al. 1984. Adult polycystic kidney disease in a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). J Med Primatol 13:147-152. Kessler MJ, London WT. 1986. Intracardiac and aortic thrombi in capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). J Med Primatol 15:259-266. Languer PH et al. 1986. 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A survey of the pathology of marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) under experiment. Lab Anim 18:351-358. Wagner JD, Jerome CP, Adams MR. 1988. Gluten-sensitive enteropathy in a cynomolgus monkey. Lab Anim Sci 38:592-594. Winterer J et al. 1984. Idiopathic precocious puberty in the chimpanzee: A case report. J Med Primatol 13:73-79. Wixson SK, Griffith JW. 1986. Nutritional deficiency anemias in nonhuman primates. Lab Anim Sci 36:231-236. Wolff PL et al. 1986. Pemphigus vulgaris in a pigtail macaque. J Am Vet Med Assoc 189:1220. Yasuda M et al. 1988. Occurrence of spontaneous diabetes mellitus in a cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis) and impaired glucose tolerance in its descendants. J Med Primatol 17:319-332.